Font Conventions

The following conventions are used in this book:

Italic

Used for directories and to emphasize new terms and concepts when they are introduced. Italic is also used to highlight comments in examples.

Bold

Used for C++ keywords.

Constant width

Used for programs and the elements of a program and in examples to show the contents of files or the output from commands. A reference in text to a word or item used in an example or code fragment is also shown in constant width font.

Constant bold

Used in examples to show commands or other text that should be typed literally by the user. (For example, rm foo means to type "rm foo" exactly as it appears in the text or the example.)

Constant italic

Used in examples to show variables for which a context-specific substitution should be made. (The variable filename, for example, would be replaced by some actual filename.)

"Quotes"

Used to identify system messages or code fragments in explanatory text.

%

The Unix C shell prompt.

$

The Unix Bourne shell or Korn shell prompt.

[ ]

Surround optional values in a description of program syntax. (The brackets themselves should never be typed.)

. . .

Stands for text (usually computer output) that's been omitted for clarity or to save space.

The notation CTRL-X or ^X indicates use of control characters. It means hold down the "control" key while typing the character "x". We denote other keys similarly (e.g., RETURN indicates a carriage return).

All examples of command lines are followed by a RETURN unless otherwise indicated.