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20.6 ppembed: A High-Level Embedding APIBut don't do that . As you can probably tell from the last example, embedded-mode integration code can very quickly become as complicated as extending code for nontrivial use. Today, no automation solution solves the embedding problem as well as SWIG addresses extending. Because embedding does not impose the kind of structure that extension modules and types provide, it's much more of an open-ended problem; what automates one embedding strategy might be completely useless in another. With a little up-front work, though, you can still automate common embedding tasks by wrapping up calls in a higher-level API. These APIs could handle things such as error detection, reference counts, data conversions, and so on. One such API, ppembed, is available on this book's CD (see http://examples.oreilly.com/python2). It merely combines existing tools in Python's standard C API to provide a set of easier-to-use calls for running Python programs from C. 20.6.1 Running Objects with ppembedExample 20-15 demonstrates how to recode objects-err-low.c by linking ppembed's library files with your program. Example 20-15. PP2E\Integrate\Embed\ApiClients\object-api.c#include <stdio.h>
#include "ppembed.h"
main ( ) { /* with ppembed high-level api */
int failflag;
PyObject *pinst;
char *arg1="sir", *arg2="robin", *cstr;
failflag = PP_Run_Function("module", "klass", "O", &pinst, "( )") ||
PP_Run_Method(pinst, "method", "s", &cstr, "(ss)", arg1, arg2);
printf("%s\n", (!failflag) ? cstr : "Can't call objects");
Py_XDECREF(pinst); free(cstr);
}
This file uses two ppembed calls (the names that start with "PP") to make the class instance and call its method. Because ppembed handles error checks, reference counts, data conversions, and so on, there isn't much else to do here. When this program is run and linked with ppembed library code, it works like the original, but is much easier to read, write, and debug: [mark@toy ~/.../PP2E/Integrate/Embed/ApiClients]$ objects-api brave sir robin 20.6.2 Running Code Strings with ppembedThe ppembed API provides higher-level calls for most of the embedding techniques we've seen in this chapter. For example, the C program in Example 20-16 runs code strings to make the string module capitalize a simple text. Example 20-16. PP2E\Integrate\Embed\ApiClients\codestring-low.c#include <Python.h> /* standard API defs */
void error(char *msg) { printf("%s\n", msg); exit(1); }
main( ) {
/* run strings with low-level calls */
char *cstr;
PyObject *pstr, *pmod, *pdict; /* with error tests */
Py_Initialize( );
/* result = string.upper('spam') + '!' */
pmod = PyImport_ImportModule("string"); /* fetch module */
if (pmod == NULL) /* for name-space */
error("Can't import module");
pdict = PyModule_GetDict(pmod); /* string.__dict__ */
Py_DECREF(pmod);
if (pdict == NULL)
error("Can't get module dict");
pstr = PyRun_String("upper('spam') + '!'", Py_eval_input, pdict, pdict);
if (pstr == NULL)
error("Error while running string");
/* convert result to C */
if (!PyArg_Parse(pstr, "s", &cstr))
error("Bad result type");
printf("%s\n", cstr);
Py_DECREF(pstr); /* free exported objects, not pdict */
}
This C program file includes politically correct error tests after each API call. When run, it prints the result returned by running an uppercase conversion call in the namespace of the Python string module: [mark@toy ~/.../PP2E/Integrate/Embed/ApiClients]$ codestring-low SPAM! You can implement such integrations by calling Python API functions directly, but you don't necessarily have to. With a higher-level embedding API like ppembed, the task can be noticeably simpler, as shown in Example 20-17. Example 20-17. PP2E\Integrate\Embed\ApiClients\codestring-api.c#include "ppembed.h"
#include <stdio.h>
/* with ppembed high-level api */
main( ) {
char *cstr;
int err = PP_Run_Codestr(
PP_EXPRESSION, /* expr or stmt? */
"upper('spam') + '!'", "string", /* code, module */
"s", &cstr); /* expr result */
printf("%s\n", (!err) ? cstr : "Can't run string"); /* and free(cstr) */
}
When linked with the ppembed library code, this version produces the same result as the former. Like most higher-level APIs, ppembed makes some usage mode assumptions that are not universally applicable; when they match the embedding task at hand, though, such wrapper calls can cut much clutter from programs that need to run embedded Python code. 20.6.3 Running Customizable ValidationsEmbedded Python code can do useful work as well. For instance, the C program in Example 20-18 calls ppembed functions to run a string of Python code fetched from a file that performs validation tests on inventory data. To save space, I'm not going list all the components used by this example (though you can find them at http://examples.oreilly.com/python2). Still, this file shows the embedding portions relevant to this chapter: it sets variables in the Python code's namespace to serve as input, runs the Python code, and then fetches names out of the code's namespace as results.[8]
Example 20-18. PP2E\Integrate\Embed\Inventory\order-string.c/* run embedded code-string validations */
#include <ppembed.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#include "ordersfile.h"
run_user_validation( )
{ /* python is initialized automatically */
int i, status, nbytes; /* caveat: should check status everywhere */
char script[4096]; /* caveat: should malloc a big-enough block */
char *errors, *warnings;
FILE *file;
file = fopen("validate1.py", "r"); /* customizable validations */
nbytes = fread(script, 1, 4096, file); /* load python file text */
script[nbytes] = '\0';
status = PP_Make_Dummy_Module("orders"); /* application's own namespace */
for (i=0; i < numorders; i++) { /* like making a new dictionary */
printf("\n%d (%d, %d, '%s')\n",
i, orders[i].product, orders[i].quantity, orders[i].buyer);
PP_Set_Global("orders", "PRODUCT", "i", orders[i].product); /* int */
PP_Set_Global("orders", "QUANTITY", "i", orders[i].quantity); /* int */
PP_Set_Global("orders", "BUYER", "s", orders[i].buyer); /* str */
status = PP_Run_Codestr(PP_STATEMENT, script, "orders", "", NULL);
if (status == -1) {
printf("Python error during validation.\n");
PyErr_Print( ); /* show traceback */
continue;
}
PP_Get_Global("orders", "ERRORS", "s", &errors); /* can split */
PP_Get_Global("orders", "WARNINGS", "s", &warnings); /* on blanks */
printf("errors: %s\n", strlen(errors)? errors : "none");
printf("warnings: %s\n", strlen(warnings)? warnings : "none");
free(errors); free(warnings);
PP_Run_Function("inventory", "print_files", "", NULL, "( )");
}
}
main(int argc, char **argv) /* C is on top, Python is embedded */
{ /* but Python can use C extensions too */
run_user_validation( ); /* don't need sys.argv in embedded code */
}
There are a couple of things worth noticing here. First of all, in practice this program might fetch the Python code file's name or path from configurable shell variables; here, it is loaded from the current directory. Secondly, you could also code this program by using straight API calls instead of ppembed, but each of the "PP" calls here would then grow into a chunk of more complex code. As coded, you can compile and link this file with Python and ppembed library files to build a program. The Python code run by the resulting C program lives in Example 20-19; it uses preset globals and is assumed to set globals to send result strings back to C. Example 20-19. PP2E\Integrate\Embed\Inventory\validate1.py# embedded validation code, run from C
# input vars: PRODUCT, QUANTITY, BUYER
# output vars: ERRORS, WARNINGS
import string # all python tools are available to embedded code
import inventory # plus C extensions, Python modules, classes,..
msgs, errs = [], [] # warning, error message lists
def validate_order( ):
if PRODUCT not in inventory.skus( ): # this function could be imported
errs.append('bad-product') # from a user-defined module too
elif QUANTITY > inventory.stock(PRODUCT):
errs.append('check-quantity')
else:
inventory.reduce(PRODUCT, QUANTITY)
if inventory.stock(PRODUCT) / QUANTITY < 2:
msgs.append('reorder-soon:' + `PRODUCT`)
first, last = BUYER[0], BUYER[1:] # code is changeable on-site:
if first not in string.uppercase: # this file is run as one long
errs.append('buyer-name:' + first) # code-string, with input and
if BUYER not in inventory.buyers( ): # output vars used by the C app
msgs.append('new-buyer-added')
inventory.add_buyer(BUYER)
validate_order( )
ERRORS = string.join(errs) # add a space between messages
WARNINGS = string.join(msgs) # pass out as strings: "" == none
Don't sweat the details in this code; some components it uses are not listed here either (see http://examples.oreilly.com/python2 for the full implementation). The thing you should notice, though, is that this code file can contain any kind of Python code -- it can define functions and classes, use sockets and threads, and so on. When you embed Python, you get a full-featured extension language for free. Perhaps even more importantly, because this file is Python code, it can be changed arbitrarily without having to recompile the C program. Such flexibility is especially useful after a system has been shipped and installed. As discussed earlier, there is a variety of ways to structure embedded Python code. For instance, you can implement similar flexibility by delegating actions to Python functions fetched from module files, as illustrated in Example 20-20. Example 20-20. PP2E\Integrate\Embed\Inventory\order-func.c/* run embedded module-function validations */
#include <ppembed.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#include "ordersfile.h"
run_user_validation( ) {
int i, status; /* should check status everywhere */
char *errors, *warnings; /* no file/string or namespace here */
PyObject *results;
for (i=0; i < numorders; i++) {
printf("\n%d (%d, %d, '%s')\n",
i, orders[i].product, orders[i].quantity, orders[i].buyer);
status = PP_Run_Function( /* validate2.validate(p,q,b) */
"validate2", "validate",
"O", &results,
"(iis)", orders[i].product,
orders[i].quantity, orders[i].buyer);
if (status == -1) {
printf("Python error during validation.\n");
PyErr_Print( ); /* show traceback */
continue;
}
PyArg_Parse(results, "(ss)", &warnings, &errors);
printf("errors: %s\n", strlen(errors)? errors : "none");
printf("warnings: %s\n", strlen(warnings)? warnings : "none");
Py_DECREF(results); /* ok to free strings */
PP_Run_Function("inventory", "print_files", "", NULL, "( )");
}
}
main(int argc, char **argv) {
run_user_validation( );
}
The difference here is that the Python code file (shown in Example 20-21) is imported, and so must live on the Python module search path. It also is assumed to contain functions, not a simple list of statements. Strings can live anywhere -- files, databases, web pages, and so on, and may be simpler for end users to code. But assuming that the extra requirements of module functions are not prohibitive, functions provide a natural communication model in the form of arguments and return values. Example 20-21. PP2E\Integrate\Embed\Inventory\validate2.py# embedded validation code, run from C
# input = args, output = return value tuple
import string
import inventory
def validate(product, quantity, buyer): # function called by name
msgs, errs = [], [] # via mod/func name strings
first, last = buyer[0], buyer[1:]
if first not in string.uppercase:
errs.append('buyer-name:' + first)
if buyer not in inventory.buyers( ):
msgs.append('new-buyer-added')
inventory.add_buyer(buyer)
validate_order(product, quantity, errs, msgs) # mutable list args
return string.join(msgs), string.join(errs) # use "(ss)" format
def validate_order(product, quantity, errs, msgs):
if product not in inventory.skus( ):
errs.append('bad-product')
elif quantity > inventory.stock(product):
errs.append('check-quantity')
else:
inventory.reduce(product, quantity)
if inventory.stock(product) / quantity < 2:
msgs.append('reorder-soon:' + `product`)
20.6.4 ppembed ImplementationThe ppembed API originally appeared as an example in the first edition of this book. Since then, it has been utilized in real systems and become too large to present here in its entirety. For instance, ppembed also supports debugging embedded code (by routing it to the pdb debugger module), dynamically reloading modules containing embedded code, and other features too complex to illustrate usefully here. But if you are interested in studying another example of Python embedding calls in action, ppembed's full source code and makefile live in this directory on the enclosed CD (see http://examples.oreilly.com/python2):
As a sample of the kinds of tools you can build to simplify embedding, the ppembed API's header file is shown in Example 20-22. You are invited to study, use, copy, and improve its code as you like. Or simply write an API of your own; the main point to take from this section is that embedding programs need only be complicated if you stick with the Python runtime API as shipped. By adding convenience functions such as those in ppembed, embedding can be as simple as you make it. It also makes your C programs immune to changes in the Python C core; ideally, only the API must change if Python ever does. Be sure to also see file abstract.h in the Python include directory if you are in the market for higher-level interfaces. That file provides generic type operation calls that make it easy to do things like creating, filling, indexing, slicing, and concatenating Python objects referenced by pointer from C. Also see the corresponding implementation file, abstract.c, as well as the Python built-in module and type implementations in the Python source distribution for more examples of lower-level object access. Once you have a Python object pointer in C, you can do all sorts of type-specific things to Python inputs and outputs. Example 20-22. PP2E\Integrate\Embed\HighLevelApi\ppembed.h/*************************************************************************
* PPEMBED, VERSION 2.0
* AN ENHANCED PYTHON EMBEDDED-CALL INTERFACE
*
* Wraps Python's run-time embedding API functions for easy use.
* Most utilities assume the call is qualified by an enclosing module
* (namespace). The module can be a file-name reference or a dummy module
* created to provide a namespace for file-less strings. These routines
* automate debugging, module (re)loading, input/output conversions, etc.
*
* Python is automatically initialized when the first API call occurs.
* Input/output conversions use the standard Python conversion format
* codes (described in the C API manual). Errors are flagged as either
* a -1 int, or a NULL pointer result. Exported names use a PP_ prefix
* to minimize clashes; names in the built-in Python API use Py prefixes
* instead (alas, there is no "import" equivalent in C, just "from*").
* Also note that the varargs code here may not be portable to certain
* C compilers; to do it portably, see the text or file 'vararg.txt'
* here, or search for string STDARG in Python's source code files.
*
* New in this version/edition: names now have a PP_ prefix, files
* renamed, compiles to a single .a file, fixed pdb retval bug for
* strings, and char* results returned by the "s" convert code now
* point to new char arrays which the caller should free( ) when no
* longer needed (this was a potential bug in prior version). Also
* added new API interfaces for fetching exception info after errors,
* precompiling code strings to byte code, and calling simple objects.
*
* Also fully supports Python 1.5 module package imports: module names
* in this API can take the form "package.package.[...].module", where
* Python maps the package names to a nested directories path in your
* file system hierarchy; package dirs all contain __init__.py files,
* and the leftmost one is in a directory found on PYTHONPATH. This
* API's dynamic reload feature also works for modules in packages;
* Python stores the full path name in the sys.modules dictionary.
*
* Caveats: there is no support for advanced things like threading or
* restricted execution mode here, but such things may be added with
* extra Python API calls external to this API (see the Python/C API
* manual for C-level threading calls; see modules rexec and bastion
* in the library manual for restricted mode details). For threading,
* you may also be able to get by with C threads and distinct Python
* namespaces per Python code segments, or Python language threads
* started by Python code run from C (see the Python thread module).
*
* Note that Python can only reload Python modules, not C extensions,
* but it's okay to leave the dynamic reload flag on even if you might
* access dynamically-loaded C extension modules--in 1.5.2, Python
* simply resets C extension modules to their initial attribute state
* when reloaded, but doesn't actually reload the C extension file.
*************************************************************************/
#ifndef PPEMBED_H
#define PPEMBED_H
#ifdef __cplusplus
extern "C" { /* a C library, but callable from C++ */
#endif
#include <stdio.h>
#include <Python.h>
extern int PP_RELOAD; /* 1=reload py modules when attributes referenced */
extern int PP_DEBUG; /* 1=start debugger when string/function/member run */
typedef enum {
PP_EXPRESSION, /* which kind of code-string */
PP_STATEMENT /* expressions and statements differ */
} PPStringModes;
/***************************************************/
/* ppembed-modules.c: load,access module objects */
/***************************************************/
extern char *PP_Init(char *modname);
extern int PP_Make_Dummy_Module(char *modname);
extern PyObject *PP_Load_Module(char *modname);
extern PyObject *PP_Load_Attribute(char *modname, char *attrname);
extern int PP_Run_Command_Line(char *prompt);
/**********************************************************/
/* ppembed-globals.c: read,write module-level variables */
/**********************************************************/
extern int
PP_Convert_Result(PyObject *presult, char *resFormat, void *resTarget);
extern int
PP_Get_Global(char *modname, char *varname, char *resfmt, void *cresult);
extern int
PP_Set_Global(char *modname, char *varname, char *valfmt, ... /*val*/);
/***************************************************/
/* ppembed-strings.c: run strings of Python code */
/***************************************************/
extern int /* run C string of code */
PP_Run_Codestr(PPStringModes mode, /* code=expr or stmt? */
char *code, char *modname, /* codestr, modnamespace */
char *resfmt, void *cresult); /* result type, target */
extern PyObject*
PP_Debug_Codestr(PPStringModes mode, /* run string in pdb */
char *codestring, PyObject *moddict);
extern PyObject *
PP_Compile_Codestr(PPStringModes mode,
char *codestr); /* precompile to bytecode */
extern int
PP_Run_Bytecode(PyObject *codeobj, /* run a bytecode object */
char *modname,
char *resfmt, void *restarget);
extern PyObject * /* run bytecode under pdb */
PP_Debug_Bytecode(PyObject *codeobject, PyObject *moddict);
/*******************************************************/
/* ppembed-callables.c: call functions, classes, etc. */
/*******************************************************/
extern int /* mod.func(args) */
PP_Run_Function(char *modname, char *funcname, /* func|classname */
char *resfmt, void *cresult, /* result target */
char *argfmt, ... /* arg, arg... */ ); /* input arguments*/
extern PyObject*
PP_Debug_Function(PyObject *func, PyObject *args); /* call func in pdb */
extern int
PP_Run_Known_Callable(PyObject *object, /* func|class|method */
char *resfmt, void *restarget, /* skip module fetch */
char *argfmt, ... /* arg,.. */ );
/**************************************************************/
/* ppembed-attributes.c: run object methods, access members */
/**************************************************************/
extern int
PP_Run_Method(PyObject *pobject, char *method, /* uses Debug_Function */
char *resfmt, void *cresult, /* output */
char *argfmt, ... /* arg, arg... */ ); /* inputs */
extern int
PP_Get_Member(PyObject *pobject, char *attrname,
char *resfmt, void *cresult); /* output */
extern int
PP_Set_Member(PyObject *pobject, char *attrname,
char *valfmt, ... /* val, val... */ ); /* input */
/**********************************************************/
/* ppembed-errors.c: get exception data after api error */
/**********************************************************/
extern void PP_Fetch_Error_Text( ); /* fetch (and clear) exception */
extern char PP_last_error_type[]; /* exception name text */
extern char PP_last_error_info[]; /* exception data text */
extern char PP_last_error_trace[]; /* exception traceback text */
extern PyObject *PP_last_traceback; /* saved exception traceback object */
#ifdef __cplusplus
}
#endif
#endif (!PPEMBED_H)
20.6.5 Other Integration Examples on the CDWhile writing this chapter, I ran out of space before I ran out of examples. Besides the ppembed API example described in the last section, you can find a handful of additional Python/C integration self-study examples on this book's CD (see http://examples.oreilly.com/python2):
Some of these are large C examples that are probably better studied than listed. |
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